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Nasal mucosa is highly vascularised and allows direct absorption into systemic circulation, though some compound inevitably drains into the throat and undergoes first-pass metabolism

Under normal physiological conditions, a balance exists between pro-oxidant ROS and antioxidants which, on the whole, prevents any damage

It is produced through solid-phase peptide synthesis and supplied as a sterile, lyophilized powder for stable storage and consistent laboratory handling

It protects tissues from excessive inflammatory damage before or during stress, supports cell survival and nerve/muscle integrity, and promotes a reparative environment

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Studies that used 1 mg/day in oral and intravenous trials did not show meaningfully better outcomes than lower doses, and higher doses were associated with more reports of headache, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal effects